Azadeh Aalai, Ph.D., is an associate professor at Montgomery College. Her research covers aggression and warfare, media effects and depictions, and gender studies. Psychology Today

I always knew I’d be a professor. When I was young, I had a chalkboard and a friend I taught as my student. Psychology appealed to me because it relates to the real world. Everything can be understood psychologically. I can read the news and bring stories into the classroom as topics for the day. A missed 30-yard kick in a football game can serve as an example of how pressure can undermine performance. There are diverse topics and perspectives to explore. It is never boring.

Because psychology is so relatable to us, we may be inclined to think, “I already know everything about behavior.” Many students are not prepared for the rigorous scientific research. To understand behavior, we have to explore empirically its many complexities. Our purpose as researchers in psychology is to capture that ever-elusive truth, so the work that goes into research is worth the insight we gain about human behavior.

The best part about teaching psychology is that I am surrounded by people who want to learn. I learn just as much as I teach. Each student brings unique experiences into the classroom, each an important springboard to exploring significant psychological topics. Being a psychologist has helped me connect with my students on a meaningful and authentic level. I have often heard that the day that a teacher stops learning is the day that he or she should retire. As a professor, I have learned every day, and as long as there is knowledge to acquire, I will continue for my students, and for myself.

Borderline Personality Disorder ("BPD") is a psychological condition that often leads to relational complications arising from a general internal instability of emotion and principles. The genetic causes of BPD are unknown, but the symptoms indicative of the condition are established and recognizable. The purpose of this article is to define what BPD is, describe its symptoms, causes, and treatment, as well as project future areas of research regarding BPD. 

What is BPD?

BPD is a psychological condition. It used to be associated with scizophrenia, but in the 1970s, the symptoms were characterized as an "affective" disorder. Officially, the disorder exists in those only 18 years or older, but obviously, the symptoms are more far-ranging than that. Complications include substance abuse, depression, interpersonal problems, and self-inflicted harm including suicide. 

What are the symptoms of BPD?

BPD is marked by instability of emotions, fast variability, flighty (and typically unusually strong) emotions. "Black and white" thinking is a key indicator, and is commonly referred to by professionals as "splitting." Interpersonal relationships become chaotic and unstable. Those with BPD typically go through episodes of devaluation and idealization, and judge themselves perhaps even more drastically than others. The individual's sense of self will often be skewed or confused, and some degree of dissociation is often seen. The mood disturbances suffered by an individual with BPD can, in addition to the constant idealization and devaluation of others, lead to serious disruptions in personal and familial relationships, and can even lead to intentional harm inflicted upon the self, even suicide. BPD is only recognized by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders in adults over 18, but the symptoms can commonly be observed in teenagers and even younger children.

What causes BPD and how is it treated?

The specific causes of BPD are unknown, but some constants of the disorder have been established, such as genetic, familial, and general social factors. Abandonment in early childhood is a common indicator, as well as a disrupted family life. Sexual abuse often plays a role in the development of BPD, as well as poor communication within the family. BPD is most common in women and hospitalized psychiatric patients. 

Like all personality disorders, BPD is very difficult to treat. Common approaches include individual talk therapy such as dialectical behavioral therapy, as well as group therapy for self-destructive behaviors. Perhaps the most successful approach to treating BPD, dialectical behavioral therapy is a comprehensive approach that teaches individuals with BPD how to take control of their lives and their emotions. Self-knowledge, emotional regulation, and cognitive restructuring are key components of dialectical behavioral therapy. Some mental health care professionals prescribe medication in order to help even out moods and decrease the effects of depression. 

What is current BPD research finding?

Often, studies of personality disorders are inconclusive. Disorders can (and probably often do) exist side by side. In terms of treatment, research shows that a regular and long-term talk-oriented therapy is the best treatment. Research shows that there is no medicine or quick fix for the disorder; rather, those who have BPD and seek treatment should prepare for a lifelong struggle. There is, however, hope for those with BPD as long as those individuals are ready to face the issue and learn how to objectively recognize where their intense and variable feelings come from. 

For more information on BPD, check out the following resources.

• National Alliance on Mental Illness - a website devoted to the exploration of mental illnesses, providing resources for those who suffer from them. 
• U.S. National Library of Medicine - a comprehensive overview of BPD, as well as links to more in-depth studies and resources. 
• stanford.edu - a comprehensive article on BPD by Dr. Richard Corelli 

Autism is a psychological condition, often referred to as a mental disorder, and is defined by Webster's Online Dictionary as "an abnormal absorption with the self; marked by communication disorders and short attention span and inability to treat others as people." However, despite many people's assumptions and the negative-sounding wording of the definition, autism is not a form of mental retardation or obsessive compulsive disorder nor does it guarantee lower intelligence. For further reading on misconceptions on autism, read What Autism is Not.

Medline Plus, an educational site run by the US National Library of Medicine in association with the National Institutes of Health, gives a much better overview of the current research and understanding of the disorder. "Autism is a developmental disorder that appears in the first 3 years of life, and affects the brain's normal development of social and communication skills."

This definition is expanded upon by the recent Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA), which states that autism "adversely affects a child's educational performance. Other characteristics associated with autism are engagement in repetitive activities and stereotyped movements, resistance to environmental change or change in daily routines, and unusual responses to sensory experiences."

Because social and communication skills manifest at vastly different rates and in different ways from person to person and are dependent on dozens of factors, cases of autism can range just as widely, making it a difficult disorder to understand with certainty. Diagnosis and treatment can be difficult to determine, let alone implement, and it is possible that autism is increasing in the population as a whole. To help manage the condition that spurs hundreds of questions, provided below are a few answers which should give you a place to start in forming your understanding, regardless of your relationship and experience with autism.

Signs of Autism

Symptoms of autism show up at a very early age. During the first eighteen months, any of the following can be possible signs of autism.

• Difficulty with 'pretend play'
• Lack of verbal or nonverbal communication 
• Unwillingness to socially interact

If any of these signs persist through the age of two or if a child 'loses' any of these abilities by three, parents should strongly consider testing for autism.

Other indicators include:

• Either abnormally high or abnormally low sensitivity to common sensations like light, sound, smells, tastes, textures, or other forms of touch sensations;
• Unusually routine behavior and extreme difficulty adjusting to changes in routine;
• Difficulty referring to or indicating self;
• Repetition of words or gestures which don't seem to intend communication;
• Slow or no language development later into childhood;
• Unwillingness to play, make friends, or communicate with others;
• Other behavioral issues which strike parents or teachers as abnormal especially concerning sightlines, focus, rituals, avoidance of other persons, emotions, sensations, or stimulation of any kind.

Related developmental disorders which can manifest in similar ways or draw on similar potential causes include:

• Asperger syndrome
• Rett syndrome
• Childhood disintegrative disorder

Tests for Autism

Watching for any of the above signs is the best. Doctor screenings are eventually necessary for parents who suspect autism, but there are many helpful online pamphlets which can enable families to diagnose in their own homes. The Checklist for Autism in Toddlers (CHAT) is one such resource.

Evaluations can also include physical and neurologic examinations. Some screening tools and tests include:

• ADI-R or Autism Diagnostic Interview - Revised
• ADOS or Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule
• CARS or Childhood Autism rating Scale
• Gilliam Autism Rating Scale
• Pervasive Developmental Disorders Screening Test

Causes of Autism

With such a vast number of potentially affected personality traits, it is unsurprising that the causes of autism vary greatly as well. In fact, even though there has been significant research into the field, psychologists are yet unable to pin down a specific cause of autism. Thusfar, studies can only find trends and correlations, but it is unclear as to whether these indicators cause autism, result from it, or merely go hand-in-hand.

Medicine Plus says that autism is caused by "a combination of factors" including genetic and "chromosomal abnormalities." As autism frequently appears along with other neurological issues, it is possible that families predisposed to brain abnormalities will be more likely to produce offspring with autism.

Even though mapping brainwave patterns of autistic children shows the symptoms of autism residing in the brain makeup, other theories have been raised that the root cause is somatic or metabolic and caused by foreign or disagreeable substances in the body. Some leading theories include

• Dietary issues, including what is eaten as well as how the digestive system is composed or compromised
• Inability to process or combat certain vaccines, particularly those administered in early childhood
• Bodily response to certain vitamins and minerals or exposure to poisonous substances like mercury

Changes in diet especially for urban families, introduction of chemicals to drinking water and hormones in foods, and the plethora of infant vaccinations help explain why rates of autism are more common in recent years than previous decades. However, because little is conclusively known about the condition's causes, it is possible that these rates are due to heightened awareness rather than external influences. See Time Health's article for more details.

Treatments for Autism

There is no cure for autism or any of the autism spectrum disorders, but there are a number of ways in which the disorder can be treated and dealt with.

Because cases of autism range from total inability to communicate to near-normal interactive tendencies, treatments vary greatly as well. Some cases rely on biomedical and pharmaceutical treatments which help to regulate the imbalances in brain chemistry tied to autism. However, some children and adults with 'high-functioning' autism merely require instructors and employers to be informed of their nuanced needs and the routines these individuals use to feel comfortable. With all of the research that has been conducted in the last few decades and awareness articles like this one, it has become much easier for instructors to prepare for work with autistic children.

Whether you are a parent, teacher, or friend of someone with autism--or have been diagnosed with autism yourself--you can develop a better understanding of treatment options and a myriad of other concerns through Autism Society.

Depression is a medical health disorder that persists for more than two weeks with an array of symptoms that range from sadness to thoughts of suicide. It can become disabling—interfering in the sufferer’s life to the extent that he or she cannot live normally. Recovery from depression is a gradual process that requires persistence and patience.

Common Forms of Depression

• Major depressive disorder (major depression). This form of depression interferes with the person’s ability to work, sleep, eat and enjoy activities. It also affects relationships and can become disabling. Some people experience one major depressive episode during their lifetime, while others may have multiple. It usually lasts longer than two weeks.
• Postpartum depression. This isn’t simply the “baby blues” most women experience after birth. Women who suffer from postpartum depression may feel disconnected from their baby, have negative feelings toward it, feel guilt, and fear hurting the baby. The Center for Disease Control estimates that 11–18% of women report symptoms of postpartum depression.
• Seasonal affective disorder (SAD). This form of depression flares during the winter months of the year and subsides in the spring and summer. Diagnosis is usually made after three consecutive winters. Most SAD sufferers are successfully treated with phototherapy.

Possible Causes of Depression

Depression is usually triggered after trauma, death of a loved one, relationship problems, and stress. The disorder can occur without family history. Hormonal and physical changes can cause depression for women. With SAD, melatonin levels are believed to be overproduced during the winter months which may cause depressive symptoms.

Symptoms and Detection

If you recognize any of these symptoms in yourself, or in someone you know, contact a doctor or mental health specialist to get diagnosed quickly.

• Sadness, pessimism, or emptiness.
• Guilt, shame, and irritability.
• Difficulty thinking and making choices.
• Change in appetite and weight (loss or gain).
• Insomnia, oversleeping, or waking early.
• Pain, headaches, and digestive problems.
• Losing interest in activities.
• Suicidal thoughts and attempts.

Linked Illnesses and Negative Effects

Depression has been linked to post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD, which occurs after a horrific event or trauma), social phobias, obsessive compulsive disorder, panic disorder, and substance abuse (including alcohol). It may occur with other illnesses such as diabetes, heart disease, and stroke. The depression may be incited by difficulty adapting to medical conditions.

Treatments

• Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and Serotonin norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) are newer antidepressants with fewer side effects than older medications. They may cause headaches, nausea, jitters, or insomnia, but symptoms lessen over time. However, they may cause sexual problems.
• Tricyclics are older antidepressants that can affect people with heart conditions. It can cause dizziness, drowsiness, dryness of the mouth, and weight gain. There is danger in overdosing.
• Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) are the oldest antidepressants. While using these, foods and beverages containing tyramine must be avoided. MAOIs can’t be taken with certain medications such as birth control, allergy medication and prescription pain relievers. MAOIs should not be taken with SSRIs due to “serotonin syndrome” which may lead to life-threatening conditions.
• For SAD, phototherapy or light therapy is used by making patients remain in light ten times the intensity of normal lighting. This treatment has shown to be successful in up to 85% of diagnosed patients.

It’s recommended to wait 4-6 weeks for prescription antidepressants to take effect; research by the National Institute of Mental Health shows that switching antidepressants, if the first is ineffective, may improve chances of beating depression.

Resources and Tips

First call 911 if you or someone you know is thinking seriously about committing suicide. The National Suicide Prevention Lifeline is available toll-free 24-hours at 1-800-273-8255 (TTY: 1-800-799-4889).

Additional information on depression and support groups can be found at the American Psychiatric Association.

For depression in children the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry website can help.

Support groups can be found in Mental Health America and the Depression and Bipolar Support Alliance.

Sources:

Depression Among Women of Reproductive Age and Postpartum Depression. (2010) Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

Major Depressive Disorder. (2006) University of Michigan Depression Center.

Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD). (2002) Mental Health America.

Bulimia nervosa is an emotional disorder that takes the form of long-term eating problems in which an individual consumes large amounts of food (a practice known as binging or binge eating) and then expels or purges the food via self-induced vomiting, exercising, or other means. Unlike anorexia nervosa (an eating disorder that includes extreme loss of body weight), people suffering from bulimia often maintain a normal body weight, allowing them to hide their disorders for years.

While bulimia can affect virtually anyone, individuals most likely to be diagnosed with the disorder (around 85 to 90 percent) are female, especially middle-class Caucasian girls in their teens. Low self-esteem, a family history of mood/affective disorders, and a family history of substance abuse are all high risk factors for bulimia.

Diagnosis and Symptoms

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM IV-TR) requires all of the following criteria to establish a diagnosis of bulimia:

• Repeated instances of binge eating (i.e., consuming significantly more food than most people would eat in the same span of time)
• A distinct feeling of loss of control over one's eating habits during episodes of binging
• Repeated and extreme countermeasures used to manage weight gain, including self-induced vomiting, laxatives, diuretics, enemas, fasting, excessive exercise, or medications to control weight
• Both binging and countermeasures occur at least twice a week over a period of three months
• Personal evaluation is disproportionately determined by one's body image
• The above symptoms do not occur entirely during instances of anorexia nervosa

There are two subtypes of bulimia, the Purging Type in which purging by vomiting, use of laxatives, or other methods is utilized after binge eating and the Non-Purging Type in which fasting or extreme exercising is employed in lieu of purging. 

Untreated, bulimia nervosa can be dangerous to mental and physical health by leading to the following complications:

• Depression, anxiety, guilt, and shame
• Stomach/gut pain
• Esophageal tearing
• Constipation, diarrhea, nausea, and bloating
• Hemorrhoids
• Throat/mouth pain
• Tooth decay
• Halitosis
• Swelling and pain of the cheeks
• Dry skin
• Fatigue
• Dehydration
• Malnutrition
• Imbalance of electrolytes
• Irregular or absent menstruation
• Kidney disorders (from diuretics)
• Pancreatitis
• Anemia
• Low blood pressure
• Heart disease and, in severe cases, death
• For pregnant women, possible miscarriage, birth complications, or birth defects

Causes

Though there is no singular cause, several factors are known to play a role in the development of bulimia. Self image is at the root of virtually all bulimia cases. People with this disorder generally suffer from low self esteem and feel insecure about their bodies. In an effort to take control of their weight, they binge and purge.

As previously mentioned, family history can also act as a catalyst for bulimia, but there is debate as to how this results in the onset of the illness. On the one hand, bulimia could result from the strain of being parented by someone with a psychological disorder or drug addiction. On the other hand, one's propensity for mental illness could be biologically inherited, meaning that bulimia could be more likely to develop because of genetics. Most likely, a combination of nature and nurture is involved.

Stress, either built up gradually or incurred from a single traumatizing event, can further increase the likelihood of bulimia in an individual. People who have recently gone through recent life changes (even something relatively small, like a new career) can be at higher risk for developing an eating disorder.

Cultural values and media in the United States have also come under fire for presenting unrealistic ideals of beauty for women to emulate. Girls who feel pressured by their environment to maintain a certain body image may become dissatisfied with their normal bodies and, consequently, develop bulimia to manage their appearance.

Treatment

Bulimia is a serious disorder and should not go untreated. Improvement is often seen with a combination of psychotherapy, family therapy, and antidepressant medication. If a patient with bulimia is also suffering from malnutrition, a doctor may prescribe nutritional supplements such as iron tablets and vitamins. In addition to these primary treatment methods, other secondary therapies have also demonstrated emotional and physical benefit. These secondary treatments include yoga, massage, tai chi, and meditation. Because relapse is always a possibility, treatment for bulimia is usually long-term and requires periodic follow-up exams.

Sources

Bulimia (2011) National Center for Biotechnology Information

Bulimia Nervosa (2011) University of Maryland Medical Center

Bulimia Nervosa Fact Sheet (2009) U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Office on Women's Health

Eating Disorder Diagnostic Criteria from DSM IV-TR (2000) Center for the Application of Substance Abuse Technologies

The Media, Body Image and Eating Disorders (2005) National Eating Disorders Association

Many people have been bullied during their lives. While bullying is sometimes thought of as a harmless rite of passage amongst children, it can be very damaging, both physically and emotionally. The damage from bullying can last a lifetime. With the advent of the Internet and other technologies, bullying has taken on a form: cyberbullying.

Bullying

Bullying generally means doing anything that harms or intimidates others. Bullying.org, an organization whose purpose is to stop bullying in society, identifies three aspects of bullying: 

• A difference in power between those doing the hurting and those being hurt,
• Repeated hurtful behaviors, and
• Intentional actions

This means that bullying is more than just conflict between two people or groups, even if it results in harm. Bullying is when one person does something repeatedly against another with the intention to harm. The bullying person, for whatever reason, wants to assert power over the other person. He or she wants has no regard for the other's feelings. Bullying can be physical, or emotional, or both. Examples of bullying include calling someone bad names, spreading vicious rumors, attacking physically, and making threats.

While bullying can happen at any period of a person's lifetime, it is especially common amongst children and teenagers. Children and teenagers are more susceptible to bullying and being bullied because they are going through confusing periods of their life, in which they want to be accepted and do not fully understand the consequences of their actions. In a 2009 sample of teenagers in grades 9 through 12, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention found that 19.9 percent have been bullied on school property. Females (21.2 percent) reported being bullied more than males (18.7 percent). A prior study, the 2007 National Crime Victimization Survey, found that 32 percent of students ages 12 through 18 reported being bullied at school and being cyberbullied.

Cyberbullying

Cyberbullying is bullying through information and communication technologies, such as the computer and phone. Examples of cyberbullying include posting nasty messages and/or rumors about someone on Facebook, sending threatening text messages, leaving harassing phone messages, and creating malicious websites.

StopBullying.gov, which provides information on bullying from various government agencies, reports that cyberbullying peaks toward the end of middle school and the start of high school. Some of the ways in which cyberbullying is different from traditional bullying include:

• It can happen at any time (i.e., not only during school),
• The malicious and hurtful words and images can be shared with a global audience, and
• It can be done anonymously.

Cyberbullying, because of the anonymity, makes it easier for people to bully others. Those who would not dare to call someone a nasty name to their face may instead go online, create a fake account, and send the person a harassing message. The potentially larger audience—for example, a website can be seen all over the world and a text sent to multiple recipients—often means that the effects of cyberbullying can be even more harmful than traditional bullying.

Dealing with Bullying and Cyberbullying

The first step in dealing with bullying and cyberbullying is to recognize that it is a serious problem with potentially fatal consequences. Parents need to make sure that they create a relationship and environment in which their child feels that he or she can share any troubles. Children need to know that they can turn to their parents or another trusted adult figure, such as a teacher, if they are being bullied. Parents also need to recognize signs of their child being bullied, such as physical injuries, a drop in grades, not wanting to go to school all of a sudden, and withdrawing from friends and family.

Parents should teach their children how to properly use social media sites, such as Facebook, and caution against spending too much time on such sites. Dr. Gwenn O'Keeffe, CEO and editor-in-chief of Pediatrics Now, recommends that parents be 'friends' with their child on Facebook. Doing so will allow the parents to monitor the child's behavior and other's interactions with the child. A child who refuses to friend a parent on Facebook may have something to hide, such as the fact that he or she is being harassed or is interacting with unsavory characters.

Whether the child admits to being bullied or the parent finds out inadvertently, it's important for the parent to first offer comfort and support. Those being bullied should know that it's not their fault. The parent can then reach out to the child's teacher or counselor for intervention. Sometimes, it's helpful to meet with the bully's parents to discuss the matter.

Those being bullied themselves should reach out to others for help and limit interaction with the bully. Retaliating and responding to the bully is not a good idea, as that is exactly what the bully wants. Law enforcement should be notified if the bullying involves physical harm or threatened physical harm. Counseling can help with dealing with the emotional effects of bullying.

Sources:

Frequently Asked Questions. (2012) Bullying.org.

Cyberbullying. (2012) StopBullying.gov.

Social Media Has Good and Bad Effects on Kids: Experts. (2012) healthfinder.gov.

Youth Violence. (2010) Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

Helping Kids Deal With Bullies. (2010) KidsHealth.

Indicators of School Crime and Safety. (2009) National Center for Education Statistics.

The Developing Teenage Mind

Turns out raging hormones aren’t solely to blame for the whole of teenage behavior.

Who knew?

The classic scapegoat for unpredictable adolescents has taken a backseat to burgeoning science.  Attention is now on a different culprit- the brain- for the influx of rollercoaster reactions, misunderstandings, and the need for a good thrill.

Why do they drive so fast?  Why are they so emotional?  If they want so badly to be adults, why don’t they see reason?  As easy as it is to indict puberty, the answer seems to be quite simple: their brain isn’t done growing up yet. 

Brain Growth Spurts

With the help of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), researchers are finding that there is a significant difference in the brain scan of a teenager compared to that of an adult.

It was long believed that the brain experienced its most significant development before the age of three, when the abundance of brain cells we are born with fight for their spot in the brain.  It turns out that throughout childhood, the thinking part of the brain experiences its own surge of connections that peaks at the age of 11 or 12.  The excess connections that are not being used are removed and those that are being used most often are protected.  This trimming of these connections, or “pruning,” lasts into adulthood, making the teenage brain caught in the crosshairs of too much information and just enough. 

The Control Center

At the front of the brain lives the prefrontal cortex, controlling communication with other parts of the brain through connections called synapses. It heads up decision making and judgment while navigating impulses and emotions, assisting in how we understand one another.  During the brain’s trimming period, a teen must slog through their abundance of connections to make one decision or react properly in the time it would take an adult’s pruned brain to do this three times over.

The pleasure-seeking part of the brain, the nucleas accumbens, is a different story.  It has no problem developing faster than the prefrontal cortex, which assists in curtailing dangerous behavior and understanding consequences. This risky combination means teens find themselves looking for pleasure and thrill before they are able to process the repercussions.   They want it and want it now and will go with that impulse before their brain can tell them why not.

Survival of the Fittest

A different kind of threat to teens arises during the pruning process, called the “Use It or Lose It” Principle.  In the world of brain cells, only the fittest survive.  The cells on the trimming chopping block are the ones we use least while those connections we use most will be protected.  This ensures more efficient communication between someone’s common connections.   Just like an unused muscle doomed to atrophy, synapses will be eliminated if they are not exercised while others strengthen. 

There is something to be said to teens spending most of their time on the couch: they are most likely losing critical connections in their brains and jeopardizing their hard-wiring for the future. Training your brain on too much television puts it at risk of losing endless valuable connections for later life. 

The same principle rings true of the slow, developing cerebellum, responsible for coordination and thinking processes, in the back of the brain.  If physical activity is limited and exercise of the cerebellum lacks, physical and cognitive abilities will not strengthen.  And no—an active avatar does not count.

Empowering Teens

Teenagers often feel “misunderstood.”  Well, because scientists are still working on it.  Without knowing exactly what influence figures and factors in a teen’s life have on the development of their brain, it sure can’t hurt to empower the teens themselves.  They have more control than they may think over how their brains shape up for the future and it can’t hurt to ask what they hope to lay the foundation for.  Music? Science? Politics? Dance?  It all starts now.  This is also the mission placed upon parents, schools, and society: to capitalize on this time with teenagers and foster exercise of the brain over sedentary behavior.  Their adult selves will appreciate it. 

Resources

Are teenage brains really different from adult brains? (2008) Discovery Fit & Health.

Inside the Teenage Brain. (2002) Frontline.

Adolescent Brain Development. (2002) ACT for Youth.

Understanding the Mysterious Teenage Brain. (2011) NPR.